A PRIMER ON LEADERSHIP 



SUMMARY


  • Defining leadership is challenging but essential for establishing clear doctrine. This publication offers a straightforward, mission-focused definition.
  • Leadership is inherently personal and contextual, and should be understood within this framework.
  • Effective leaders master a variety of leadership styles, particularly authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching styles.
  • An effective leader gets the right job done willingly and well by everyone in the group.
  • Leadership serves two main functions: leading people and leading the organization.
  • Command, leadership, and management are distinct concepts that result in different behaviors.
  • Leadership is a relational process involving followers, and is influenced by context and situation. Leaders inspire voluntary commitment.
  • The leadership process is a means to achieve a desired end.
  • Negative leadership is present in all organizations and must be actively prevented.

INTRODUCTION


1. Leadership is ubiquitous and is on display in everyday life. Whether it is on the sporting field, or within an emergency response team taking control of a dangerous situation, individuals embark on everyday leadership challenges. 



DEFINING LEADERSHIP


2. Leadership can mean different things to different people, which is due to  leadership being both a highly personal experience and also contextual to the  situation and environment. As a result of such personal perspectives in leadership,  there are a range of definitions. One aspect leadership scholars can agree on is that  there is not a common definition of leadership.



Definition of leadership


3. While there are numerous definitions of leadership, and consensus on a single definition is difficult, we have defined leadership in terms of the requirement to achieve missions; including what behaviours and values are regarded as important in achieving missions. Therefore, our definition of leadership is as follows: 



Definition



Leadership. The process of influencing others to gain their willing consent in the  ethical pursuit of missions. 



Other leadership definitions


4. Leadership is a subject that continues to occupy academics and practitioners alike and there are many books and articles that attempt to define and explain  leadership. One reason for the plethora of leadership definitions is that the term itself  is used in a variety of ways. Leadership is frequently defined as a virtue or a  characteristic of a person. This is most often evident when leadership is defined as a  capacity within an individual. Examples include the ability to inspire loyalty, respect  and confidence or the capacity to identify and define organisational goals. Leadership  definitions that focus on the characteristics or virtues of the leader, although popular  with historians and those who subscribe to the trait theory, say little of the leadership  situation or the role of followers. 


5. Other leadership definitions include categories of behaviour, such as  influencing people or directing, motivating and enabling others. Such definitions are  popular with trainers and developers because they point to relevant leader  competencies, but again these definitions tend to ignore the role of followers. Even  more simplistic is defining leadership as an attribute of a position such as the leader  or the officer in charge. Simply holding high office or a position of authority does not  mean the office holder automatically displays leadership behaviour. 


6. Most commonly, leadership has been defined as a process. Leadership definitions also endeavour to acknowledge the complementary roles of both the leaders and the followers in this process. Nevertheless, these process or relationship definitions tend not to differentiate between leading people and leading organisations. Within organisations it becomes apparent that there are two different leadership functions, namely the function of leading people—or close leadership—and the function of leading the institution—or distant leadership. 


7. Where more distant leader-follower relationships are considered, the focus is on the charisma and the supposed power of the leader in terms of the resources they control, including their ability to reward and punish. Whilst these distinctions in leader-follower distance can be attributed to merely physical distance, a variety of dimensions have been identified in literature. Antonakis and Atwater propose a three factor structure: frequency of interaction; physical distance; and social distance. As a result, these authors suggest that ‘the dynamics of the influencing process differ depending on how “close” or “distant” followers are from their leader’.


8. Close leaders generally have, as the term implies, regular contact with their  group. Examples of close leaders include teachers in the school environment. On the other hand, distant leaders do not have regular contact with those they wish to influence but rather project their ideas and vision through a variety of media. One leadership function, however, does not exclude the other. 


9. The variations in the way that the term leadership is used have complicated  attempts to come up with a single, all-encompassing definition of leadership. Simple  definitions are generally value-neutral and make no distinction about what might be  


effective or ineffective leadership. On the other hand, more complicated definitions  tend to be context specific and overly prescriptive. 



LEADERSHIP COMPONENTS


10. Despite numerous definitions of leadership, a series of components are  common to most. Six of these components appear to be the essence of leadership  and each is required before an individual can be deemed to be exercising a clear  leadership function. The six essential components are as follows: 


a. Influence. Leadership is about someone influencing, motivating or inspiring  others. Most commentators believe that influence in the leadership  relationship is multi-directional and is not restrained by position. Some  authors believe that these influence behaviours must be non-coercive (ie must not use force). 


b. Followers. Other people aside from the leader are a necessary component  of leadership. Some commentators also stress that followers have  responsibilities and obligations to leaders. These commentators believe that  responsible followers must exercise choice, in other words, a responsible  follower will choose dissent when faced with leadership influence that the  follower believes is unlawful or unethical.


c. Goal. Leadership also has something to do with a mutual goal, mission or  vision. If there is no mutual goal, mission or vision then it is unlikely that a  group will form or stay together. Nevertheless, the goal or mission may not be grand or visionary but may be as simple as to survive in the current  environment, to co-exist as a group or to win a game of volleyball. 


d. Purposeful action. Leadership involves doing something or taking action  towards the successful achievement of the group’s goal. Although  achievement is seen by some as the hallmark of leadership, other  


commentators believe it is the striving for achievement that is characteristic of leadership. 


e. Consent. Effective leadership also requires the consent of those being led;  the followers. Consent suggests that there is a direct relationship between the leader and the followers, and as a consequence there are responsibilities on both within an effective leadership construct. In some circumstances the  leader is expected to use pressure as required to achieve the goal. In other  contexts, followers will resist force and coercion.


f. Ethical dimension. Related to follower willingness or conviction is the  concept that leadership has a moral or ethical component. Followers see the  difference between striving for a goal that they believe to be ethically sound  and one that is ethically bankrupt. This distinction is made to differentiate  between those leaders that are influential and visionary but morally corrupt  and those that are equally influential and visionary but morally sound. 



Power, authority and influence


11. Power. The concept of influence appears central to leadership. Related to  influence is the part played by power and authority. Power is normally defined as the  capability of doing or affecting something but has been extended in management  texts to mean the ability to change the behaviour, attitudes and beliefs of others.  Common bases of power include: 


a. Reward power. Influence and control are exercised through the allocation of resources or rewards, generally for compliance or as an exchange. This type of power is only effective if individuals value the rewards being offered. 


b. Coercive power. Coercive power is generally concerned with punishment for non-compliance. Influence is gained through force. The threat of punishment can be a strong motivator to comply. 


c. Legitimate power. Legitimate power is power that is delegated to an  appointed manager. It includes certain legal obligations and  


responsibilities. Influence is gained through the establishment of set rules  and procedures.  


d. Referent power. Certain people have a quality about them that others like or are attracted to. This is often referred to as charisma. Influence is gained  through persuasion and the individual’s desire to identify with the qualities  displayed by the individual with referent power. 


e. Expert power. Expert power is related to knowledge and skills. Individuals  with expert power are able to influence others because of their competency  in a particular field or area. In highly technical or specialist areas, subordinates may possess more expert power than their superiors. Again,  influence is gained through rules and procedures. 


f. Informational power. People may be able to influence others, because they possess some information that is needed to achieve a certain outcome. Often it may be used together with expert power.


12. Research has consistently found that referent and expert power (also referred to as inspirational appeal and rational persuasion) are most effective for influencing task commitment. Conversely, legitimate and coercive power (enforced compliance and punishment for inappropriate behaviour) are least effective because over time, they diminish the ability of others to improve themselves. If leadership is about inspiring willing commitment, then coercive power is generally less useful than other forms of power. 


13. Authority. Authority defined in the Macquarie Dictionary is ‘the right to  determine, adjudicate, or otherwise settle issues or disputes; the right to control,  command, or determine’. Legitimate authority, such as that given to an appointed  commander or manager, includes certain obligations and responsibilities that are  supported by established rules and procedures. The commander or manager has the  legitimate authority to enforce compliance with established rules and procedures  through the threat of punishment. Although sanctioned and at times completely  appropriate, the use of such legitimate authority is not an example of leadership but  rather an example of command or management. 


14. At least one author has noted: 


Confusion between leadership and official authority has a deadly effect on large  organisations. Corporations and government agencies everywhere have executives  who imagine that their place on the organisation chart has given them a body of  followers. And of course it has not. They have been given subordinates. Whether  the subordinates become followers depends on whether the executives act like  leaders.


15. Influence. The influence referred to in the leadership process is enabled by a  psychological connection between the leader and follower. Followers commit to do  what leaders require of them not necessarily because of formal authority but because  of trust and belief. Two people can have identical formal authority and power and yet  one is able to achieve so much more than the other. The difference between the two  arises from the ability of one to engender a real sense of collective ownership of the  task at hand and for the followers to assume personal responsibility for the outcomes  required. Effective leadership should, therefore, rely on influence more than the  simple exercise of authority or the various forms of power. 



LEADERSHIP VERSUS MANAGEMENT


16. There are common themes in the literature on leadership and management.  Leadership, as indicated previously, is an influencing process that energises  followers; while management is a control process aimed at bringing coordination and  efficiency to people and organisations. There has been an ongoing, albeit simplistic,  argument about the difference between leaders and managers where it is implied  that managers merely enforce existing practices and procedures, while leaders are  visionaries who guide their organisations to a better future. In reality, members of  large organisations perform both management and leadership functions, and both  are equally as important. The mix of leadership and management required is context  driven, depending on the organisational requirements at the time. 


17. Management defined. Management is ‘the process of planning, organising,  directing and controlling organisational resources in the pursuit of organisational  goals’. In this definition, no mention is made of purposeful influence or the  willingness of followers. People are seen as resources to be organised, directed and  controlled. Management is also based on formal organisational authority and entails  responsibility for a broad range of functions that have traditionally included planning,  problem solving, decision-making, organising, informing, directing, allocating  resources and controlling. Some definitions of management also include the function  of leading while some definitions of leadership include the activities of directing and  controlling. Table 1 offers a comparison of leadership and management.



Table 1: Comparison of leadership and management 


Leadership Developing and communicating the vision Motivating (inspiring)  Influencing change in people,  organisations Setting an example, acting as a role model Engendering faith, trust, respect  Followers identifying with leader  Inspiring individuals to perform beyond their expectationsManagement Planning and budgeting, business  planning, allocating forces and resources Organising and staffing  Controlling and problem solving  Producing goods, providing services  Supervising Decision-making Monitoring activities Coordinating  Administrating Controlling

KEY LEADERSHIP CONSIDERATIONS


18. The previous discussion considers leadership as a process. Much more has  been written on the factors that impact upon the leadership process, which includes  the leadership function, situation, culture, traits of leaders and followers, values,  behaviours, competencies and style. The more important of these factors are  discussed below under the general headings of ‘leadership outcomes’, ‘leadership  context’, ‘the leader’ and ‘the follower’. The relationship between these factors is  shown in Figure 1. 



Figure 1: Key leadership considerations



Leadership outcomes


19. Leadership is a means to an end. Effective leadership facilitates change— change from where the group or team is (the current state) to where the group or  team wants to go (the end state). If there is no goal, objective or vision then there is  nothing to move towards and therefore the requirement for leadership is significantly  reduced. Care should be taken, however, not to confuse change (in this instance the  activities associated with change) with leadership. Merely initiating change is not, in  itself, a sign of leadership. To have a positive effect on an organisation, implementing  change must be undertaken with, as the leadership definition suggests, the willing  consent of those being led. In simple terms, effective change requires equally  effective leadership. The considerations that fall under this heading include the  leadership function, values-based leadership and the ethical leadership. 


20. Leadership function. Leadership is about relationships and achieving  something that would normally be beyond the individual. These three aspects of the  leadership function, the team, the individual and the task, are often cited as the most  important leadership considerations, and form the basis of what is known as the  functional leadership model, which is shown in Figure 2. The relationship between  the three aspects is constant. This is reflected in the notion that in an effective  leadership arrangement, decisions are usually shared by the group, even when the decision is made by one person.



Figure 2: Functional leadership model


21. Values-based leadership. While the behaviour of a group may be governed by external rules, it is guided by internal group values. The advantage of values over  rules in guiding the group is the adaptability they provide in ambiguous situations. In  such circumstances, values-based leadership enables members to be guided in their  


decisions and actions by their agreed values. These values should also reflect the  individual values of the group members. 


22. Values-based leadership, therefore, is where the behaviour of the leader reflects both the values of the group and their own personal values. It does not,  however, automatically follow that leadership outcomes are universally good. Values based leadership as a concept can apply equally to a criminal organisation or to a  hospital. The difference in how outcomes are achieved within these two groups  comes down to the values that form the basis of their leadership. Both groups could  well share the values of courage, teamwork and initiative, but may not be in accord  on the value of human life. 


23. Ethical leadership. The use of the term ‘values-based leadership’ implies  the consideration of ethics, or what one ought to do, in the leadership process. The  quality and substance of the group values (the ethics) that underpin the leadership  function determines the nobility of the outcome. Some authors have referred to the  


difference in these two concepts as the difference between positive and negative  leadership.  


24. Positive leadership is generally characterised by socially accepted values  such as integrity, honesty and humility. Conversely, negative leadership is  characterised by self-centred and personalised values such as elitism, individualism  and cunning. 



Leadership context


25. Different situations call for different leader and follower behaviour. A single  leadership approach will not serve all individuals. The context in which leadership is  exercised includes the situation, culture and organisational values. 


26. Situation. Leadership is a contextual phenomenon. The particular time, place or situation that a group or leader finds itself in is a key determinate of who and how someone leads. Context can include the environment, the prevailing culture, the  follower’s abilities and attitudes, and the nature of any problem encountered. As an example, history shows that some leaders who were very effective in wartime were markedly less  effective in peacetime. 


27. Culture. Allied to context but far more pervasive and harder to change is the  culture of a group or organisation. Derived from beliefs, traditions, assumptions and  values, an organisation’s culture determines who leads and what leadership styles  and behaviours are acceptable. Leaders should understand and appreciate the  culture that exists within the organisation. 


28. An organisation’s culture should be an accurate reflection of the espoused  values of that organisation. As a rule, members do not join (or remain in)  organisations where the culture runs counter to their personal values and beliefs.  Circumstances may arise, however, where organisational values and culture are not  as closely aligned as they should be. In such cases, strategic level leaders may, and  indeed should, endeavour to implement programs focused on aligning the two. 


29. Organisational values. Organisations identify values that they believe lead to behaviours that benefit their purpose or aspirations. They see values such as  integrity and honesty as important because they guide behaviour to a desirable end  state. Values are not seen as a replacement for rules; rather they act alongside them  as correct-path beacons in ambiguous situations where the strict application of rules  is not obvious. 


30. Much has been written about organisational values and the importance of  alignment between an individual’s values and those of the organisation. This  recognises that individual values may not align with those of the organisation, but  the individual may still behave in a manner that accords with the organisational  values. This can affect leadership in two ways. Firstly, a leader or follower who  espouses organisational values and then is seen to operate by a different (or  opposing) set of values undermines their credibility and any trust others have in  them. Secondly, all leaders within an organisation should ensure the behaviour of  members aligns with the organisational values.



The leader


31. There has traditionally been a strong focus on the attributes, qualities and  capabilities of the leader. As such, there are many considerations that relate to the  make-up of the leader. These considerations include the leader’s character,  competence, values, trustworthiness, motivation to lead and leadership style. 


32. Character. The behaviour of leaders is closely observed by their followers, as it directly affects the relationships that exist between them. A number of organisational studies have indicated that a worker’s immediate supervisor has more influence on that worker than any other person. Appropriate leader behaviour engenders trust and credibility in the eyes of followers. Accordingly, an individual’s character and competence affects their ability to lead others. 


33. A leader’s character, which encompasses their social capacity, interpersonal  skills, personal integrity, conscientiousness and self-assurance, certainly affects the  extent to which they can gain the willing support of their followers. Many of these  social awareness character traits are combined in what is now being called emotional  intelligence. Much has also been written on leadership traits such as self-confidence; and intelligence and adaptability. Importantly, an outcome of how followers perceive a leader in terms of these characteristics is the leader’s trustworthiness. 


34. Trust in leadership is positively related to individual and group performance,  persistence in the face of adversity and the ability to withstand stress. A climate of  trust between leaders and the led is also positively related to such qualities as  conscientiousness, fair play and cooperation. Whether trust is based mainly on  demonstrated leader competence, the care and consideration for others displayed by  the leader, or on perceptions of a leader’s character (integrity, dependability and  fairness), the evidence supporting this common understanding is compelling and  robust.



A LEADER’S CHARACTER


35. Competence. A leader’s competence includes professional mastery, cognitive ability, problem solving, decision-making and communication skills. A leader’s perceived and demonstrated competence has a direct bearing on their credibility as viewed by followers. 


36. In a practical sense, leaders employ a variety of styles according to the  situation in which they find themselves. In an office environment, a supportive style  that considers the needs of employees is likely to be more effective than a directive  style. Conversely, in a time-critical or ambiguous situation, a directive style that  clarifies the path ahead is more likely to motivate confused onlookers than a  participative approach. Ideally, the influence behaviours that make up a certain  leadership style should be consistent with the concept of leadership. 


37. Individuals must first develop themselves before they seek the responsibility to lead others. Those who spend time developing professional mastery are at the  same time laying the foundations for credibility. Individuals who spend time  developing their integrity are at the same time laying the foundation for trust. 


38. Values. Values are beliefs about what is considered important in life. Values  guide thoughts, decisions, behaviours and interactions. As a result, an individual’s  decisions, behaviour and interactions are interpreted by others as reflecting the  values of that individual. This is an important consideration for those who wish to  influence others. For those who seek to lead, it is expected that their decisions, behaviour and interactions accord with The Team’s values: leaders should live The Team’s values. 


39. Trust. A leader must be trusted by their followers. As mentioned above, trust is based on integrity but also based on competence, capability, and results.


40. Motivation to lead. Potential leaders must be motivated to lead. They have to want, or accept the necessity, to lead in order to turn any leadership potential that  they may have into reality. This desire should be balanced with the realisation that  with leadership comes additional responsibilities, increased accountability and the  likelihood of being constantly challenged and tested. Although assigned a leadership  position with associated authority, an individual’s effectiveness as a leader is  diminished if they lack the motivation to lead. 


41. Leadership style. Leadership style is defined as a combination of a leader’s  personality, character and behaviour in influencing and decision-making. Research which has drawn on a random sample of thousands of executives has identified six  leadership styles: 


coercive—the leader demands immediate compliance 


authoritative—the leader mobilises people toward a vision. 


affiliative—the leader creates harmony and builds emotional bonds. democratic—the leader forges consensus through participation. pacesetting—the leader sets high standards of performance. coaching—the leader develops people for the future. 


42. Research indicates that leaders who get the best results are those who have  mastered four or more, especially the authoritative, democratic, affiliative and coaching styles. Effective leaders don’t just mechanically match their style to fit a  checklist of situations, they are far more fluid. They are sensitive to the impact they  are having on others and seamlessly adjust their style to get the best results. Few  leaders have all six styles and it is important for all leaders to strive to expand their  repertoire. 


43. Although appropriate in some social settings, a laissez faire style that  accepts a complete absence of control is unlikely to provide purposeful influence.  Equally, a total control authoritarian style, even though appropriate in some  situations, is unlikely to generate willing commitment from followers. 


44. Leadership style has a direct bearing on what has become known as the  transactional–transformational range of leadership. Transactional leadership is an  exchange relationship where a subordinate performs tasks assigned by a superior in  return for rewards such as pay and promotion. Transactional leaders are not  necessarily concerned with subordinate needs and development—and for these  reasons some authors see the transactional style as management rather than  leadership. Leaders may be required to modify their behaviour to satisfy the needs of  followers—in other words, followers can shape leader behaviour. In simple terms,  followers also influence leaders in a leadership relationship. 


45. Transformational leaders motivate followers by engaging them with a  compelling vision that encourages a progression beyond personal interests for the  good of the unit. Transformational leadership is said to be characterised by charisma,  intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and individualised consideration. More recent examination of the transformational–transactional dichotomy indicates that both have their place in any organisation and that favouring one exclusively creates imbalance. Organisations do need leaders with vision, but they also need leaders and managers who finish the task at hand. 


46. Leadership groups. An interesting phenomenon to emerge in recent years,  particularly in sporting teams and some specialist business environments, is the  concept of ‘leadership groups’. A small number from within the team are appointed,  or selected by their peers, as a leadership group, and exercise a collective influence  over the rest of the team. The collective strengths of these individuals are seen to be  of utility in imposing and maintaining the desired values and behaviours that enable  the team to achieve positive results. In most cases, one individual from that  leadership group acts as the final arbiter on issues affecting the team (the ‘captain’),  and serves as the link with higher management. It is clear that such an approach has  its limitations within an organisational structure.



The follower


47. Whilst there are many thousands of books on leadership there are very few on the subject of ‘followership’. Traditionally studies on leadership have focused almost solely on leader attributes and leader behaviours. Nevertheless, leadership is a relationship that cannot exist without followers: ‘Because both leaders and followers are part of the leadership process, it is important to address issues that confront followers as well as issues that confront leaders. Leaders and followers should be understood in relation to each other’.


48. Followership is not a passive activity. Followers have responsibilities and  obligations to their organisation and to their leader. Responsible followers must  exercise judgement to ensure that they follow ethical leadership and are not led  astray by unethical or ineffective leaders. Responsible followers shape leader  behaviour, provide feedback on leader and group performance, and give or withhold  consent when faced with difficult group decisions. 


49. Shaping leader behaviour. The personality and character of followers (be  they lazy, competent, experienced, mature, etc) influences the style that the leader  needs to adopt (directive, coaching, delegating, etc). The relationship between  leaders and followers in organisations affect job satisfaction, organisational  performance and turnover. Where followers perceive unfair treatment by the  organisation and its leaders, they push for an adjustment. Follower satisfaction with  the leader is influenced by their perception of justice. To maintain group cohesion, it  is important for leaders to enable followers to voice their concerns and respond in a  manner that balances the needs of the group and organisation with those of the  individual. 


50. Followers pressure the leader for adjustment if they feel that the exchange is  unfair or unbalanced. Follower satisfaction with the leader is influenced by their  perception of justice. Leaders are therefore required to make appropriate  adjustments to their behaviour to achieve group cohesion. 



Effective leaders create a culture which is truly diverse and inclusive… The real risk of a leader behaving in any way contrary to this approach is that they will eventually find themselves isolated from their followers. 

51. Follower feedback. Responsible followers give feedback on a leader’s  actions and decisions. A responsible follower chooses dissent when faced with  leadership influence that the follower believes is unlawful, unsafe, oppressive or  


counter to the goals of the organisation. A confident leader accepts challenges to  their decisions and does not see dissent as an attack on his or her character but  rather uses the dissent as an opportunity to re-evaluate any actions taken. 


52. Consent. Leaving aside the title ‘leader’ as a designator of a formal position, a person cannot become the leader of another unless the other accepts that relationship. It is obvious that a supervisor at work or a chief executive officer can  move individuals in a particular direction, but they do not truly lead until they have  achieved the acceptance of those individuals. When individuals or members of  groups give unthinking or unwilling consent, they may be contributing to the demise  of their organisation. There are many examples in history where such unthinking  consent has resulted in disaster. 



NEGATIVE LEADERSHIP


53. Most of the literature about leadership understandably focuses on positive  leader behaviour that is both inspirational and effective. Indeed, most leadership  doctrine is about positive leadership. However, there is now considerable evidence  that negative leadership has a stronger effect on individuals, teams and  organisations and may be a greater risk to performance than the absence of positive leadership. Consequently, we all have much to gain from a deeper understanding of negative leadership and how to prevent it. 


54. While it has been argued that negative leadership is not, by definition, a form  of leadership, it would be unwise to ignore the topic on this basis. Negative leadership occurs when otherwise capable and competent people misuse their authority to achieve outcomes at the expense of their subordinates and/or their organisations. The reasons for choosing a negative style of leadership can be personal or a reaction to a problematic dynamic between the individual, organisational demands, superiors and their subordinates. In other words, negative leadership can be just as context driven as positive leadership. 


55. In the past, negative leadership was often referred to as ‘toxic leadership’,  which largely focussed on a particularly narcissistic, ego driven style of leader. Toxic  leader behaviour has a significantly detrimental effect on people and, in the long run, on the success of organisations. However, not all negative leadership, nor all  negative leaders, fit this mold. As research into negative leadership has advanced it  is now clear the toxic leader may represent a sub-set of a broader pattern of negative  leadership. 



Defining negative leadership


56. Negative leadership is broadly defined as any behaviour that undermines the  interests, values or intent of an organisation or damages the wellbeing, motivation or  faith of followers or both.  Some negative leaders put organisational goals at risk by  


refusing to exert authority because they prioritise friendship and image over enforcing  compliance to rules and procedures. Other negative leaders adopt a tyrannical and  uncaring attitude towards subordinates, setting unrealistic and even unsafe goals  without concern for the welfare of their people. A further subset of negative leaders  appears to have only their own interests at heart with no apparent concern for their  organisation or their followers. In each case, the effect of the negative leader can be  deeply felt and difficult to remedy. 


57. It is important to note that a strong task focus is not always an indicator of  negative leadership. There are times when leaders legitimately prioritise task  achievement ahead of individual welfare. This reflects the social contract between the willing follower and the ethical leader. Negative leadership is particularly damaging to organizational effectiveness because it undermines the confidence of followers and diminishes the integrity of the  organisation. As negative leaders tend to be self-serving by definition, their influence is almost always counter-productive to capability and long-term success. 



Negative leader types


58. Organisation over people. Leaders who give priority to their organisations,  platforms or tasks to the detriment of their people can sometimes be rewarded by  superiors for achieving results over and above those achieved by others. However, in  the longer term, by putting the wellbeing, mental/physical health and/or safety of their  subordinates at risk, such leaders extinguish subordinate goodwill, drive down  performance and even risk organisational ruin. Not all such leaders are tyrants,  sociopaths or narcissists, but their preoccupation with achieving organisational  demands without prioritising the welfare of their people can damage the organisation. 


59. People over organisation. Leaders who prioritise their relationships with  subordinates over the legitimate responsibilities of their role as leaders comprise a  different type of negative leader. In this case, rather than correcting negative  subordinate behaviour and upholding the values and standards of their organisation,  such leaders may turn a blind eye to breaches of the rules or even become negative  role models themselves. While such an approach could be driven by a desire to  remain on good terms with subordinates, it is also possible such leaders disagree  with the values of their organisation and behave in a way that is conscientiously non compliant. When leaders stop being examples of the positive values of the organization, and/or operate in collusion with rogue subordinates, there is always the risk of a major breakdown in organizational discipline. 



Neither people nor organisation: the derailed leader


60. The derailed leader can appear in a range of forms and sometimes may even  have started out as a ‘rising star’. Unfortunately, some individuals lack the deeper  personal values that protect them from the potentially corrupting influence of power. 


61. The most damaging derailed leader is the toxic leader. These people become driven by a desire for personal gain and reward. In their need for success they  ingratiate themselves with their superiors, take credit for the achievements of others,  bully and intimidate their subordinates and look for every opportunity for personal  glorification. They are generally menacingly competitive, aggressive towards those  who disagree with them and capable of treachery to get themselves ahead.  Sometimes a personality disorder such as narcissism or sociopathy underlies this  behaviour, and can be reflected in interpersonal problems in other areas of the  individual’s life. Once an individual has lost the ability to control the desire for power,  they can generate significant organisational disruption amongst those who work for  and with them. 


62. Another form of derailed leader is the laissez faire leader. These leaders tend to distance themselves from taking control or making decisions, leaving this  responsibility in the hands of subordinates. At the extreme, this can be seen as  simply place-sitting in a leadership position and is not actually leadership at all.  


Lesser types of derailed leaders are those who avoid difficult leadership  responsibilities such as making contentious decisions, disciplining subordinates,  enforcing standards, asserting authority in a crisis or setting a positive example. Wherever a leader appears to be detached from the responsibilities of their position  there is a reasonable chance they have become derailed. 



The normalisation of deviance


63. While negative leadership generally arises because of the flawed values or  priorities of individuals and/or the unique pressures of the context, such behaviour  can also occur when the norms and values of the organisation have slipped into  negative or unethical territory. Known as the normalisation of deviance, this process  occurs slowly and is therefore not obvious to those with the power to prevent it. As  relatively benign behaviour gradually evolves into more dangerous or high-risk  activities, bystanders unwittingly collude with the process because they are led to  believe it is harmless and ‘normal’. 



The unethical leader


64. Underlying the different ways negative leadership is represented is a failure of personal ethics. Knowing the difference between right and wrong in a specific situation requires considerable ethical wisdom. Ethical wisdom can never be assumed; organisational values and ethics need to be continuously modelled and reinforced. 


65. The truly unethical leader is the person who knows something is ethically  wrong but goes ahead with a negative decision anyway. Such decisions take  followers down a dark path and risk their engagement in acts that violate their own  personal ethical values and those of the organisation. To demand such a  compromise from one’s own people, without just cause, fits the criterion of an  unethical act. 



Summary


66. When leaders use their authority or influence in such a way that risks the  integrity of the organisation, the welfare of their people or appears to be  predominantly self-serving, they have become negative leaders. While negative  leader behaviour generally reflects flaws in the values or personality of the individual  it is clear that situational factors can also increase the risk of a leader following a  negative path. The consequences of such behaviour can be significant within  organisations. 



LEADERSHIP THEORIES AND MODELS


67. Leadership theories emerging in the post–World War I period focussed on the leader’s possession of necessary personal qualities. This approach assumed that  leaders shared some common list of traits that could be identified and conveyed,  through training or development, to others. Following World War II, the emphasis  shifted from inner qualities to observable behaviours. Leaders were then thought to share common ways of saying and doing things, and that these could also be  identified and passed on. 


68. By the 1960s, the emphasis shifted to more complex theories that involved  greater flexibility and movement between behaviours of leaders, to accord with  changes in situation. More recently, theories have been proposed that are based on  the effectiveness of reward, or quasi-economic, transactions between the leader and  followers and the more charismatic approach in which the leader recognises and  fulfills the higher order needs of followers. 


69. The utility of leadership models is in explaining leadership theory and practice. Leadership models are used to explain and simplify many of the leadership considerations outlined above; however, they do not answer the question ‘how do I  lead’ because of the contextual and personal nature of leadership experience.  


70. We recognise the importance of the leader-follower relationship. For that reason it emphasises the need for willing consent to be gained as an important part of our definition of leadership. The hierarchical nature of the organisation, and the importance placed on enforcing discipline and following orders, leads to a blurring  of the line between what constitutes leadership and the more straightforward  exercise of command authority. The seemingly clear theoretical distinction between  the two proves to be less obvious when considered within a context of missions or  tasks being undertaken in demanding operational situations. 


71. Leadership is a relationship between leaders and followers that involves trust, depends on the situation and is enhanced by having a shared set of values. It is also apparent that negative leadership can have an adverse effect on the relationship  between leaders and subordinates and can result in organisational decline and an  inability to achieve tasks. Although certain behaviours are expected from both  leaders and followers, there is no single preferred leadership style or example of a  leader who excels in all circumstances. 



EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE


72. The leadership ability of an individual is influenced by, or results from, a  range of factors. One factor which has received increasing consideration is the  leader’s ability to know themselves and to understand others. This factor is  commonly summarised as referring to an individual’s ‘emotional intelligence’.  Unfortunately this term has been used to embrace a range of other models and  concepts, and it is therefore necessary to explain how it is interpreted in this  publication. 


73. The focus of emotional intelligence is on the emotional and social competencies that support the construct of understanding self and others.  Accordingly, four fundamental competencies are considered as follows: 


a. Self-awareness. Knowing one’s internal states, preferences and intuitions. Importantly it is recognising one’s emotional state and the impact it has on one’s own behaviour, including decision-making. 


b. Self-regulation. Managing one’s internal states, preferences and intuitions. While recognising the impact of one’s emotions on behaviour is fundamental, it is the use of this information to regulate the external response to minimise negative effect that is beneficial. The regulation of the internal response may be desirable for the long-term well-being of the individual but generally requires a longer timeframe to achieve. 


c. Social awareness. Recognising the emotional states of others and the impact on the individual and the team. This includes an appreciation that emotions can be ‘contagious’ and, through their impact on morale, may undermine or enhance a team’s success. 


d. Relationship management. Managing the emotional state of the team to generate the optimal outcomes for the team and the organisation. The information about the team dynamics that is provided through social awareness provides the opportunity to shape, mitigate and respond to the emotional states of individuals for the benefit of the team. 


74. Development in these four competences may assist an individual in a leadership role, whether it is in a small team, a unit or the organisation. 



TRAITS AND LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL


75. The theory of trait leadership developed from early research into leadership  which focused on finding a group of innate or ‘inbred’ attributes that differentiated  leaders from non-leaders. The theory suggests that leadership ability is inherent in a  select number of individuals and that the traits they possess cannot be easily  developed in others. While research has demonstrated that successful leaders differ  from other people and possess certain core personality traits, trait theory has  generally proved to be a poor indicator of leadership ability as it fails to take into  account other important factors. These other factors include leader motivation and  development, the role of followers and the leadership situation. 


80. Nevertheless, certain psychological traits or capabilities are common in  successful leaders and result in behaviours that are attractive to followers. The four  most important of these traits or capabilities are as follows: 


a. Self-confidence. High self-efficacy, trust in own abilities, optimistic with internal locus of control. 


b. Adjustment. Stable with low anxiety. The absence of neurosis, reliable and open. 


c. Drive. Pro-social influence, motivation, the desire for achievement, power, ambition, high energy, tenacity and initiative. 


d. Cognitive ability. Intelligence, ability to integrate and interpret large amounts of information, knowledge of business and relevant technical matters. 


81. Followers are attracted to people who display confidence, who are credible and who they can trust. Anybody who is neurotic or constantly anxious is unlikely to  appear confident or attract followers. Conversely, people who have low levels of  anxiety and high self-efficacy (a belief that they are capable of successfully completing assigned tasks) have the potential to attract followers. Followers are also  more likely to be attracted to people who have a positive vision or goal for the future.  Someone who is overly pessimistic with little drive is unlikely to attract followers. On  the other hand, someone who is generally optimistic and hopeful for the future shows potential for leadership. 


82. Another psychological trait that may serve as an indicator of an individual’s  leadership potential is termed ‘locus of control’. This can be described as the extent  to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them. People with  an external locus of control tend to believe in luck, and believe that most events in life  are pre-ordained and outside their influence. On the other hand, people with an  internal locus of control believe that they are in charge of their lives and can control  situations to suit their desired outcome. 


83. Followers are more likely to be attracted to a leader who displays an internal  locus of control (as opposed to an external locus of control) since that person  appears to be more in charge of situations. People with an internal locus of control are better able to accept that change is something that they can shape and influence  rather than it being an inevitable force over which they have no control. 


84. It is unclear whether the possession of these traits was the cause or consequence of leadership success. What is apparent, however, is that these traits can be used to guide the selection of leaders and to influence subsequent leadership development programs.



LEADERSHIP STYLES


Table 2 summarises the 6 key styles of leadership, of which a good leader should be proficient in several and change their leadership style to suit the current scenario.  



Table 2: The six key leadership styles.



COMMAND VERSUS LEADERSHIP 



Command


85. Command is the authority which a person exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank or assignment. Command includes the authority and responsibility for effectively using available resources and for planning the employment of, organising, directing, coordinating and controlling people for the accomplishment of assigned missions. It also includes responsibility for health, welfare, morale and discipline of assigned personnel.


86. From this definition it is obvious that the essence of command is the legal  authority to order subordinates towards assigned tasks. Command requires structure,  can only be applied down a chain of command and requires compliance from  subordinates. This definition places primacy on accomplishing the mission with a  secondary focus on the personnel involved. The definition doesn’t include the word  ‘leading’, nor does it mention that vital component of leadership, namely the influence  of others. Aspects of command that differentiate it from leadership include  compliance, discipline and the authority to direct and control the activities of others  as explained below and the key concepts are outlined in Table 3. 


a. Compliance. The essence of command is the authority to direct subordinates towards the completion of assigned tasks. Once a superior decides on a course of action, there is limited scope for subordinates to act contrary to the direction provided. 


b. Discipline. Discipline generally relates to training and conditioning to enforce obedient behaviour to rules and orders. Non compliance with rules and orders can bring about punishment, imposed to ensure future compliance. 


c.The use of discipline, although essential in certain  


circumstances, is rarely a demonstration of leadership. For example, military discipline is based on legitimate authority and relies on coercive power and the fear of punishment for effect. Leadership influence is independent of formal authority and relies on personal power and an ability to gain willing commitment. 


d. Directing and controlling. The process of directing and controlling usually  implies some form of formal authority. Directing by verbal or written orders, as in directing air traffic or issuing directives to subordinates, are activities that come from positions of authority and are generally issued by superiors. Such directions require compliance and obedience.  


e. Under the definition of leadership given in above, directing and controlling that calls for unconditional obedience cannot be considered a legitimate leadership activity. On the other hand, a style of leadership that is characterised by a leader who gives guidance, a leader who lets subordinates know what is expected of them, is called an authoritative style of leadership. An authoritative style of leadership, although assisted by a position of authority, doesn’t necessarily rely on that position or authority for its effect. 



Table 3: Key concepts showing the difference between leadership and command. 


Leadership concepts Command concepts
Responsibility accepted Authority granted
Organisational structure not required Requires a hierarchical structure
Can influence in all directions Influence is down chain of command
Following a leader’s actions or advice is  discretionaryFollowing a command (given by a legal  commander) is compulsory
Committed followers Complying subordinates

LEADING THROUGH CHALLENGING TIMES


87. Stress and fear. The responsibilities of leadership can be stressful in normal  situations. During times when the team is at risk, this level of stress is likely to increase. Tough times can bring confusion, chaos, uncertainty, doubt and fear. This creates an atmosphere that is ripe for leadership. People caught up in this confusion look for guidance and reason. They  want to be shown a direction that will lead to a reduction in chaos, confusion, uncertainty, doubt and fear. In such a situation, a person who is able to control and suppress their own fear attracts the attention of others. If that same person is then able to sooth and abate the fear in others, then they will have followers. 


88. Managing stress and fear. To manage stress and fear in chaotic situations, a leader should: 


a. explain that fear is a normal occurrence and encourage discussion so team members are less likely to suffer self-recrimination after this has passed 


b. maintain routine and habit and, as far as possible, adhere to daily routines 


c. ensure the timely and accurate passage of information as knowledge  dissipates the unknown and quells rumours 


d. understand and monitor signs of stress in self 


e. manage their own fear and try to behave calmly.


89. Self-discipline. A general goal should be to develop in individuals a sense of judgement and a capacity for self-regulation so that reliance on external discipline is minimised. In so far as self-discipline relates to the internal regulation of behaviour, the advantages of this approach (over externally  regulated behaviour) in terms of consistency, initiative and adaptability make the inculcation of self-discipline in others a key responsibility of leaders. 


90. Belief in purpose. Moral behaviour implies personal choice, and the extent of that freedom to choose is the element of willingness or acceptance included in the  leadership relationship. The moral component of leadership, the ability to get people  


to work willingly and with passion, refers to the rightness or correctness of what one is doing in your operations. The sense that one is fighting for a just cause and fulfilling a worthy purpose, the conviction that the purpose is morally and ethically sound, is a necessary component of leadership.  



TEN PRINCIPLES FOR LEADING PEOPLE


91. The following principles are useful for self-assessment and developing a  personal leadership action plan. They reinforce the leadership behaviours outlined  above and support the observation that leadership is best taught by example. 


92. Be proficient. Leaders must ‘know their stuff’. Team members trust leaders who are confident in their own abilities. To be confident, a leader must be tactically and technically proficient. The leader is also responsible for training subordinates. Proficiency can be attained through a combination of formal  training, on-job experience and self-improvement. Successful leaders recognise that  developing proficiency is a lifelong pursuit. It is the capacity to develop and improve their skills that distinguish good leaders from others. They have the self-discipline to develop themselves. Some suggestions for expanding proficiency include: 


a. studying the techniques of successful leaders and adopting the approaches  that best suit


b. seeking balance in all that one does 


c. maintaining confidence 


d. developing creativity and constantly asking the question: ‘how can I, or we,  do it better?’ 


e. developing self-motivation to take positive goal oriented action. 


93. Know yourself and seek self-improvement. To know themselves, leaders  need to understand their own preferences, strengths and weaknesses, including how  their behaviour affects others. This allows leaders to take advantage of strengths and  to seek self-improvement to overcome weaknesses. Knowing and understanding  one’s strengths and weaknesses is the first step; doing something about them is the  next. Leaders must take responsibility for shaping their own circumstances and  experiences into success. Awareness and control allow people to respond  instinctively to what happens around them.  


When something happens, individuals typically have the chance to evaluate the event and their likely reaction before actually doing anything. In that time they can  check what they want to do, use their imagination or creativity in choosing a  response, use judgement in choosing the best course of action and apply their conscience to decide if it is right or wrong to do what they are about to do. Knowing yourself and making a conscious effort to improve, lays the foundation for knowing  others. 


94. Seek and accept responsibility. Leading always involves responsibility.  Leaders must be prepared to accept those responsibilities when they accept the  leadership role. These include responsibilities passed from superiors and the demands of subordinates. Beyond stated responsibilities, seniors expect leaders to  take the initiative within the stated vision and to also train and encourage  subordinates to seek responsibility. When leaders see something that requires  action, they do not wait to be told to act but take responsibility. The example set by  assuming responsibilities helps to shape a team. When leaders make mistakes, they  accept fair criticism and take corrective action. Leaders avoid blaming someone else  and accept responsibility for the actions of their team in order to keep their  confidence. 


95. Lead by example. Team members want and need the leader to be a role model. No aspect of leadership is more powerful. If the leader expects courage, competence, candour, commitment and integrity from followers, then the leader must personally demonstrate those qualities. High, but attainable, standards should be set, and the leader should be willing to do what is required of the rest of the team, and share dangers and hardships with them. The leader’s personal example affects followers more than any amount of instruction or discipline. The leader must be a model that others trust and choose to follow. 


96. Provide direction. A team must understand its purpose. Each member needs to know the task to be done, the standard to be achieved and the time frames within which it is to be achieved. This understanding of purpose can be applied to leadership at the tactical, operational and strategic levels. Being able to analyse commander’s intent and operate within the mission vision is essential for success. In  the absence of direct orders, the leader and the team should have the skills, knowledge and initiative to act in accordance with the commander’s vision. The following hints help leaders to apply this principle: 


a. develop the ability to communicate clearly 


b. encourage the team to seek explanation of anything which is not clear 


c. by questions confirm the team’s understanding of plans, the context of the situation and the commander’s intent 


d. supervise the execution work to ensure the intent is being achieved, but do not stifle initiative by micromanaging, and make every possible means  available to the team to assist them in their task. 


97. Know and care for your subordinates. Leaders need to commit time and  effort to listen to and learn about their followers. Leaders strive to understand what  makes their team members tick and what is important to them. Leaders who show genuine concern for their team will find that they will trust and respect the leader in response. Failure to care for them gives the message that the leader will put little value on their work. It is insufficient to tell the team that the leader cares for them, it must be demonstrated. People have a range of needs that they want satisfied. These range from the need for food and shelter to the need for meaningful work and self-development. Accordingly, leaders should: 


a. be fair and approachable 


b. obtain as much knowledge as possible from personal records and personal contact with the team 


c. be concerned for subordinates’ domestic circumstance, living conditions and work environment 


d. be fair and firm in the administration of reward or discipline 


e. provide opportunities to assist subordinates’ personal development f. support the team with loyalty and respect. 


98. Develop the potential of subordinates. By delegating authority to  subordinates, a leader enables subordinates to develop their potential as leaders.  When a leader is willing to delegate authority, it indicates trust in the team and  fosters an environment where they seek more responsibility. It is the leader’s  responsibility to create conditions where subordinate’s potential may flourish and to: 


a. tell subordinates what to do, not how to do it, and then supervise, intervening only when necessary 


b. provide opportunities for team members to perform higher duties 


c. be quick to recognise the accomplishments of subordinates, be open with  praise and correct errors constructively


d. support subordinates—have faith in their performance until convinced  otherwise. 


99. Make sound and timely decisions. Leaders must be able to rapidly assess a situation and make sound decisions. Delaying or avoiding making a decision creates hesitation, loss of confidence, and confusion. Good decisions made at the right time are better than the best decisions made too late. Successful leaders don’t come up with the answers all the time but they do have to be prepared to endorse a decision to act when necessary. Leaders can develop their ability to make sound and timely decisions by adhering to the following: 


a. Clarify an issue and gather the facts. Don’t rely on assumptions. The most  frequent mistake in decision-making is trying to decide before all the facts are  known. But gathering facts must be balanced with the need for timely  decision-making. 


b. Practice making logical assessments of all factors before coming to a  decision, even everyday ones. 


c. Plan ahead and work out answers to problems, including possible risk. 


d. Listen to your subordinates and value their knowledge. Seek their opinion and use their thoughts to assist in decision-making. 


e. Consider the short and long term effects of decisions and answer the  question: does it fit with our values? 


f. Keep the team informed of policies and plans so that they can also plan  ahead. 


100. Build the team and challenge their abilities. Leaders must develop a  camaraderie among subordinates that motivates them to willingly and confidently  meet all challenges. Team members need confidence in the leader’s ability to lead  them and in their own ability to perform as a member of the team. Individuals perform  better when they share the goals and achievements of the team. Subordinates gain  satisfaction from performing tasks that are reasonable and challenging but are  frustrated if tasks are too easy, unrealistic, or unattainable. Leaders should: 


a. ensure the team is keeping pace with the work 


b. try to get the best training facilities and resources available and make work  innovative and demanding 


c. educate subordinates in the duties of other team members and in the duties of adjacent teams 


d. let each individual know the importance of their role in the success of the  team 


e. use the full capabilities of the team before requesting assistance. 


101. Communicate and keep your team informed. Keeping subordinates informed helps them to make decisions and execute plans within the leader’s intent, encourages initiative, and improves teamwork. Kick off new plans by explaining why the team is completing a task. Team members who are well informed are less likely to be influenced by false rumour and their morale and confidence will be higher than if they were left in the dark. They will look for logic in instructions and in a high trust environment will question things that do not make sense. They expect leaders to keep them informed and, when possible, explain reasons for instructions. Leaders need to work hard at building these relationships, based on mutual respect. 



ORGANIZATIONAL AND STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP


102. There are two major leadership functions: leading people; and leading the organisation. Leading the organisation is primarily concerned with developing and maintaining the company and professional capabilities and creating the conditions for operational success. This form of leadership can also be referred to as strategic leadership. While strategic leadership is affected by leaders at many levels, it is primarily exercised by the senior leadership group. 


103. People leadership is defined as the process of influencing others in order to gain their willing consent in the ethical pursuit of missions. While this definition applies equally to strategic leaders, their role can be more broadly explained as providing a vision and direction to guide organisational growth and success. 


104. By its very nature, strategic leadership has a greater focus on individuals and  groups external to the immediate team or group, tends to rely on more indirect  methodology, and has a capability focus that is rarely evident at the lower leadership  levels. 


105. External focus. Strategic leaders exercise influence over a range of individuals and groups far beyond those that are the focus of operational and tactical level leader’s responsibilities. Not only do these ‘others’ include all those that supervise and control internal systems, but they also include many people and groups external to the company. Indeed, strategic leaders are frequently required to influence people outside of the company on a range of issues. As a consequence, they need to employ far reaching and complex social networks to affect all-round influence.  


106. Indirect influence. By the very spread and diverse nature of those that need to be influenced, the effect sought by strategic leaders tends to be less direct and more distant than the influence exercised in team leadership. Strategic leaders are more likely to influence through media, policy formulation, team structure, provision of equipment and shaping work conditions than they are by face-to-face conversations. 


107. Leading people and leading organisations—the differences. The main  differences between leadership at the lower level (where people are the primary  consideration) and at the higher (organisational) level are shown in Table 4. 


108. A significant difference arises regarding the time frame over which mission  outcomes are required. Leadership at the lower levels is generally focused on short  term mission outcomes, while strategic leadership can have outcomes out to 5  years or more. 



Table 4: Comparison of leading people and leading the organisation


Leading people Influence is directed towards team members Influence is close and direct, usually  face-to-face Mission is tactical or operational,  normally discrete and well defined Time frame is short, results expected in leader’s tenureLeading the organisation Influence is directed towards all within the company as well as many external agencies Influence is generally distant or indirect Time frame is long, results may not be seen for 5 years